GLOBALIZATION TECHNOLOGY & SOCIAL CHANGE
RESEARCHER: Julia Muallem
Often considered an ancient blight, slavery has existed for thousands of years. When we think about slavery it usually conjures up thoughts of the Atlantic slave trade, the American South, or the Biblical slavery of the Old Testament. With the ownership of human beings being illegal in every country, it is often thought to be an extinct phenomenon.
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Source: https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/archaeology/1.713849 Date accessed: 12/15/17
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https://tourthaitour.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/d182d180d0b0d0bdd181d18b.jpg Date accessed 12/13/17
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Yet, despite this common belief, slavery has in fact not disappeared. Its forms may have mutated over time, but from the brothels of Thailand to child labor in Pakistan, severe poverty and inequality have allowed individual employers to establish institutionalized control over laborers. People enter into slavery through a variety of locally determined processes the sale of girls to brothel owners-or through systems of inherited debts that create labor obligations. Once trapped in the slave relationship, workers and sometimes their families lose autonomy, dignity, hope. It becomes an almost cycle; one which is almost impossible to escape.
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Trafficking is distinguishable from other forms of exploitation when there is a presence of force, fraud or coercion. this thus indicates that the victim has not consented of his or her own free will.
https://www.freetheslaves.net/wp-content/themes/freetheslaves/images/infographic-global-impact.jpg Date accessed 12/13/17
The world has shrunk, evolving into a sort of global community. With this, the transfer of people both voluntary and coerced has become more prevalent. The main cause of this so called condensing of the world is the process of globalization. It is in large part due to globalization that human trafficking has become such a lucrative and thus, fast-growing criminal activity. Economic globalization and the facilitation of trade between nation-states has contributed a great deal to the trafficking of humans across state boundaries. Globalization is a process that, in part, disseminates practices, values, technology, and other human products throughout the globe.
Globalization creates interdependence between states for commerce, thus, facilitating the transfer of commodities. The ability for a nation to produce a good or service for a lower opportunity cost than other countries, in other words comparative advantage, in goods and cheap labor has played a significant role in the objectification and exploitation of humans for economic gains. In developing nations where agrarian lifestyles once predominated, citizens are left without an education or the appropriate skills to compete in this new evolving work-force. To a large extent, the lesser developed countries of the world have become the factories and workshops for the developed countries. A high demand for cheap labor by multinational corporations in developed countries has resulted in the trafficking and exploitation of desperate workers who, in turn, are subjected to a lifetime of slave-like conditions.
The Trafficking of Burmese Women and Girls into Thailand
In an effort to maximize profit and by the fear of HIV, the agents that work for brothel owners seek their so called recruits in more remote areas of Burma. This is mainly because virgin Burmese women are far more sought after, since they bring in more of a profit and do not pose the threat of STDs. The agents promise the young women jobs as waitresses or dishwashers, with good pay and new clothes. They are typically accompanied by Family members or friends to the Thai border, where they receive a payment ranging from 10,000 baht ($400) to 20,000 baht ($800) from someone associated with the brothel. This payment becomes the debt, usually doubled with interest, that the women and girls must work to pay off, not by what was previously thought, but through sexual servitude.
Once the women and girls are confined in the Thai brothels, escape is virtually impossible. Any Burmese girl who steps outside the brothel risks physical punishment, retribution against her parents or relatives for defaulting on her debt and/or arrest for being an illegal immigrant by the same police who are ironically often the brothel owner's best clients.
Once the women and girls are confined in the Thai brothels, escape is virtually impossible. Any Burmese girl who steps outside the brothel risks physical punishment, retribution against her parents or relatives for defaulting on her debt and/or arrest for being an illegal immigrant by the same police who are ironically often the brothel owner's best clients.
The women and girls face immense abuse. Such abuse includes debt bondage, illegal confinement, forced labor, rape, physical abuse, exposure to HIV/AIDS, and in some cases, murder. Initially, young girls are kept in what is known as the hong bud boree sut. This translates literally to "the room to unveil virgins." They are later moved to the hong du, or "selection" room. In this room, they are displayed in windowed enclosures wearing numbers. The sex occurs in small cubicles where the women and girls also live. Their beds are often little more than a concrete bunk. Working conditions are appalling and inhumane. The girls work ten to eighteen hours a day, about twenty-five days a month. They average between five and fifteen clients a day. Health care and birth control education are minimal. In some instances, pregnant women are forced either to abort illegally or to continue to service clients well into their pregnancies. Many of the girls and women are brought to Thailand as virgins; most return with HIV. Fifty to seventy percent of the women and girls interview by Asia Watch and the Women's Rights Project were HIV positive.
The government of Thailand recognizes that trafficking is an issue that is widespread. In the early 1990s, under Prime Ministers Anand Panyarachun and Chuan Leekpai, there was some limited reforms, both legal and institutional. In November 1992, for example, Prime Minister Chuan pledged to crack down on child and forced prostitution. A number of high-profile raids on illegal brothels followed. But more than a year later, the trafficking of Burmese women and girls continues virtually unchecked and according to some local activists, is on the increase. For the most part, agents, pimps, brothel owners and clients, and even Thai officers been exempt from punishment. In fact, the main victims of the Chuan administration's crackdown on forced and child prostitution appear to be the victims of such abuse themselves, whom police routinely subject to discriminatory and wrongful arrest and face deportation.
How such as trade of Burmese women in Thailand can flourish so immensely can be understood in the context of economic conditions in both countries. In Burma, there has been perceptible economic growth in urban areas such as Mandalay and Rangoon since the early 1990s, a direct result of SLORC's decision to loosen some government controls over trade. In the countryside, however, there has been a steady deterioration in the rural economy, with declining productivity, decreasing availability of basic commodities, such as cooking oil, skyrocketing prices, and heavy taxation. Rural villages are facing extreme poverty. Because of this, there is a strong the attraction to work in Thailand. The overvaluation of the Burmese currency, the kyat, also fuels the exodus to Thailand. One US dollar is worth 6.7 kyat by the official exchange rate and 100 kyat on the black market. Any foreign currency is preferable to the Burmese currency. On the Thai side, the steady supply of illegal Burmese workers fuels a prospering economy nationwide with a 1992 growth rate of close to eight percent. This is due to a border boom brought about by the increased trade with Burma and a profitable tourist industry.
The government of Thailand recognizes that trafficking is an issue that is widespread. In the early 1990s, under Prime Ministers Anand Panyarachun and Chuan Leekpai, there was some limited reforms, both legal and institutional. In November 1992, for example, Prime Minister Chuan pledged to crack down on child and forced prostitution. A number of high-profile raids on illegal brothels followed. But more than a year later, the trafficking of Burmese women and girls continues virtually unchecked and according to some local activists, is on the increase. For the most part, agents, pimps, brothel owners and clients, and even Thai officers been exempt from punishment. In fact, the main victims of the Chuan administration's crackdown on forced and child prostitution appear to be the victims of such abuse themselves, whom police routinely subject to discriminatory and wrongful arrest and face deportation.
How such as trade of Burmese women in Thailand can flourish so immensely can be understood in the context of economic conditions in both countries. In Burma, there has been perceptible economic growth in urban areas such as Mandalay and Rangoon since the early 1990s, a direct result of SLORC's decision to loosen some government controls over trade. In the countryside, however, there has been a steady deterioration in the rural economy, with declining productivity, decreasing availability of basic commodities, such as cooking oil, skyrocketing prices, and heavy taxation. Rural villages are facing extreme poverty. Because of this, there is a strong the attraction to work in Thailand. The overvaluation of the Burmese currency, the kyat, also fuels the exodus to Thailand. One US dollar is worth 6.7 kyat by the official exchange rate and 100 kyat on the black market. Any foreign currency is preferable to the Burmese currency. On the Thai side, the steady supply of illegal Burmese workers fuels a prospering economy nationwide with a 1992 growth rate of close to eight percent. This is due to a border boom brought about by the increased trade with Burma and a profitable tourist industry.
The boom, together with the tourist industry, has increased the demand for women, especially for young girls, free of infection. According to one source provided by Asia Watch and the Women's Rights Project, tourism generates some $3 billion annually, and sex is one of its "most valuable sub sectors, "employing anywhere from 800,000 to two million people throughout the country. The Burmese girls are thus only a fraction of the total. Tourism, which has been an increasingly profitable industry has become the country's major source of foreign exchange. It has even surpassed exports such as rice and textiles. Thailand's image as a "sexual paradise" plays a significant role in this tourist boom. On the other hand, the local demand is far more significant. It is estimated that seventy-five percent of Thai men have had sex with a prostitute. The potential for profit and incentive for authority to simply turn a blind eye is extremely high.
Bounded Labor: Soccer Ball Manufacturing in Pakistan
In the United States, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA) defines labor trafficking as: “The recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage or slavery.” Human trafficking victims make an alarmingly high number of consumer goods and food products, imported to the United States and produced domestically. Regrettably, elements of forced labor may be present within the supply chain of products we buy or the services we pay for more often than not. As economies around the world integrate, it is faster and easier for goods produced with forced labor to enter the global market. In the U.S., labor traffickers exploit and enslave both foreign nationals and U.S. citizens. In cases of labor trafficking, consumers provide the demand and profit incentive for traffickers. These consumers can include companies that subcontract certain types of services, end-consumers who buy cheap goods produced by trafficking victims, or individuals who use the services of trafficking victims.
Despite being illegal in most countries where it is found, rights groups say bonded labor is one of the most widespread methods of forcing people to work against their will. The U.N. say bonded laborers form account for many of the 12 million people the U.N. identifies as modern day "slaves."
This was exemplified in the manufacturing of soccer balls in the 1990s, otherwise known as footballs. Football is one of the most popular games all over the world, and around 40 million footballs are sold every year. Approximately 75% of the world’s hand-stitched footballs are made in Sialkot. Seventy five percent of World’s $1 billion Soccer Ball Industry is in Pakistan, mostly in Sialkot. In which about 10000 Pakistani kids are stitching balls for approximately 10 hours a day. Pakistani Kids (mostly bonded labor) produced one quarter of about 35 million soccer ball stitched in Pakistan. About 80% of soccer balls sold in USA are made in Pakistan, where every 5th worker is a kid aging 7-12 years old Seventy five percent of world’s hand stitched soccer balls are produced in Sialkot, Pakistan. As many as 7,000 children worked in the industry before the international community intervened. In 1996 Punjab Labor Department revealed through a survey of child labor in soccer ball that 17 % of child labor were working in Soccer Ball Industry.
In 2005, popular soccer ball manufacturer, Nike had been blamed for child exploitation to make soccer balls in Pakistan and had also been under observation for using bonded labor in the country. Child labor is against the law of Pakistan, but its implementation is neglected. Therefore buying a soccer ball from market meant that a product which came in to being after a long process in which 200 children (inclusive of children of 4-5 years of age) were involved. The type of child labor in which Nike was involved in Pakistan was also present in countries like India, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Since then Global Exchange reported that Nike Inc. bowed down to international pressure and promised to root out underage workers by making overseas manufacturers of its wares to strictly meet U.S health and Safety Standards. Nike agreed to pay higher prices for soccer balls to support such pledge. Strict regulations have been put into place and the incidences of soccer ball stitching by children at home has become almost non existent, after the organization of stitching centers and fall of demand. Now no child work exists in these stitching centers. Though this such case has been subsequently resolved, similar cases still continue.
Despite being illegal in most countries where it is found, rights groups say bonded labor is one of the most widespread methods of forcing people to work against their will. The U.N. say bonded laborers form account for many of the 12 million people the U.N. identifies as modern day "slaves."
This was exemplified in the manufacturing of soccer balls in the 1990s, otherwise known as footballs. Football is one of the most popular games all over the world, and around 40 million footballs are sold every year. Approximately 75% of the world’s hand-stitched footballs are made in Sialkot. Seventy five percent of World’s $1 billion Soccer Ball Industry is in Pakistan, mostly in Sialkot. In which about 10000 Pakistani kids are stitching balls for approximately 10 hours a day. Pakistani Kids (mostly bonded labor) produced one quarter of about 35 million soccer ball stitched in Pakistan. About 80% of soccer balls sold in USA are made in Pakistan, where every 5th worker is a kid aging 7-12 years old Seventy five percent of world’s hand stitched soccer balls are produced in Sialkot, Pakistan. As many as 7,000 children worked in the industry before the international community intervened. In 1996 Punjab Labor Department revealed through a survey of child labor in soccer ball that 17 % of child labor were working in Soccer Ball Industry.
In 2005, popular soccer ball manufacturer, Nike had been blamed for child exploitation to make soccer balls in Pakistan and had also been under observation for using bonded labor in the country. Child labor is against the law of Pakistan, but its implementation is neglected. Therefore buying a soccer ball from market meant that a product which came in to being after a long process in which 200 children (inclusive of children of 4-5 years of age) were involved. The type of child labor in which Nike was involved in Pakistan was also present in countries like India, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Since then Global Exchange reported that Nike Inc. bowed down to international pressure and promised to root out underage workers by making overseas manufacturers of its wares to strictly meet U.S health and Safety Standards. Nike agreed to pay higher prices for soccer balls to support such pledge. Strict regulations have been put into place and the incidences of soccer ball stitching by children at home has become almost non existent, after the organization of stitching centers and fall of demand. Now no child work exists in these stitching centers. Though this such case has been subsequently resolved, similar cases still continue.
The process of globalization is notably evident in the world economy. As the world economy has become increasingly more integrated it has enabled human trafficking to thrive. Just like the slavery of old, modern day trafficking of humans is a lucrative business that has only become more rewarding for traffickers with the advent of globalization. Hundreds of years ago the trans-Atlantic slave trade epitomized economic globalization. Continuous with the past, human trafficking, as abhorrent as it is, remains a matter of supply and demand.
Sources:
TED Case Study: NIKE: Nike Shoes and Child Labor in Pakistan, www.chinalaborwatch.org/newscast/66.
U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, 2001-2009.state.gov/g/tip/rls/fs/2005/50861.htm.
A modern form of slavery: trafficking of Burmese women and girls into brothels in Thailand. 1993.
“Human Trafficking Casts Shadow on Globalization.” Human Trafficking Casts Shadow on Globalization | YaleGlobal Online, 23 Apr. 2003, yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/human-trafficking-casts-shadow-globalization.
Jammal, Rasha. “Human trafficking and economic globalization. (c2011).” doi:10.26756/th.2011.14.
Naseem, Imran. “Impact of Globalization on Child Labor in Carpet Industry of Pakistan.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2011, doi:10.2139/ssrn.2166725.
Russell, Ashley. “Human Trafficking: A Research Synthesis on Human-Trafficking Literature in Academic Journals from 2000–2014.” Journal of Human Trafficking, Aug. 2017, pp. 1–23., doi:10.1080/23322705.2017.1292377.
Suk-Rutai, Peerapeng, et al. “Impact Of Economic Globalization On The Human Trafficking In The Greater Mekong Sub-Region Countries.” Applied Studies In Agribusiness And Commerce, vol. 6, no. 5, 2012, pp. 125–132., doi:10.19041/apstract/2012/5/20.
TED Case Study: NIKE: Nike Shoes and Child Labor in Pakistan, www.chinalaborwatch.org/newscast/66.
U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, 2001-2009.state.gov/g/tip/rls/fs/2005/50861.htm.
A modern form of slavery: trafficking of Burmese women and girls into brothels in Thailand. 1993.
“Human Trafficking Casts Shadow on Globalization.” Human Trafficking Casts Shadow on Globalization | YaleGlobal Online, 23 Apr. 2003, yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/human-trafficking-casts-shadow-globalization.
Jammal, Rasha. “Human trafficking and economic globalization. (c2011).” doi:10.26756/th.2011.14.
Naseem, Imran. “Impact of Globalization on Child Labor in Carpet Industry of Pakistan.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2011, doi:10.2139/ssrn.2166725.
Russell, Ashley. “Human Trafficking: A Research Synthesis on Human-Trafficking Literature in Academic Journals from 2000–2014.” Journal of Human Trafficking, Aug. 2017, pp. 1–23., doi:10.1080/23322705.2017.1292377.
Suk-Rutai, Peerapeng, et al. “Impact Of Economic Globalization On The Human Trafficking In The Greater Mekong Sub-Region Countries.” Applied Studies In Agribusiness And Commerce, vol. 6, no. 5, 2012, pp. 125–132., doi:10.19041/apstract/2012/5/20.