GLOBALIZATION TECHNOLOGY & SOCIAL CHANGE
Green Cities
by Silvia Mendez
December 2017
December 2017
Green cities are characterized by open green space, energy-efficient buildings, renewable or clean energy sources, sustainable development, and reduced carbon emission. Many countries around the world have adopted different measures to add more green space in their cities. Green space is known to cut pollution levels and energy costs, improve air quality, as well as add to the aesthetic appeal of the city. Green urban spaces have a psychological, social and cultural role to play in the needs of city dwellers (Patarkalashvili, 2017). An eco-city is used to describe cities built in balance with nature. A green economy is defined as one that reduces environmental risks and ecological scarcities, while improving human well-being and social equity. It is characterized by increased investments in economic sectors (such as renewable energy, energy-efficient buildings, clean technologies, sustainable agriculture, improved waste management, forest management, and improved freshwater provision) supported by national policy reforms, and the development of international policy, and market infrastructure. Increased urbanization around the world is analogous to a growing consumption of energy, which provides opportunities for research and development for environmentally friendly technologies and solutions (United Nations Environment Programme, 2011).
With the Kyoto Protocol linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), many nations have adopted its binding greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. A total of 192 countries have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol with the exception of Afghanistan, Sudan, and the U.S (Merchant, 2011). More recently, however, the Paris Climate Agreement of 2016 has provided a loose-fitting framework for individual countries to develop their own climate strategies all with the goal of further reducing greenhouse gas emissions. China and India, originally assumed to be against such a climate deal, are actually supporters (Simon-Lewis, 2017). For information on how India is being transformed by renewable energy take a look at the following website: www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/publications/2015/renewable-energys-transformation.pdf . Now, let us focus on China's rapport for renewable energy sources to provide an example of how different sectors contribute to the building of green cities.
In support of the Paris Climate Agreement a Chinese foreign ministry spokesperson stated the following: "The general trend of green, low-carbon and sustainable development advocated by the Paris Agreement coincides with China's policy of promoting ecological advancement. However the other countries may change, China will continue to pursue innovative, coordinated, green, open and shared development, bear in mind its domestic requirements for sustainable growth, step up concrete efforts to deal with climate change and faithfully implement the Paris Agreement" (Simon-Lewis, 2017). Research and development of eco-cities, smart cities and clean energy is currently booming in China, due to large market demand and government policy support. China plans on building 300 eco-cities, has committed itself to producing 20 percent of its primary energy from renewable resources by 2030, and is estimated to spend $365 billion on the effort (Gardiner, 2017). In 2005, China passed a Renewable Energy Law that offers a variety of financial incentives such as discounted lending and tax preferences, which has encouraged advances in the development of wind power and solar power. Challenges in implementation, however, arise from change in leadership, relocation of rural people, and land disputes (Sukhdev, Stone, Nuttal, 2010).
Many Western companies are developing new solutions in China's largest eco-city, Tianjin. For instance, the British company Green Biologics has developed biobutanol production technology, which turns agricultural waste products into biofuels and produces an important chemical used in the production of paint, adhesives, inks, and plastics. They signed a deal in 2011 with Laihe Rockley Biochemical Ltd, to help it produce biobutanol from cellulose feedstock. Besides Brazil, China is the only country with biobutanol plants, although it is now being commercialized to other markets around the world. An example of another company involved in the research and development environment of China, is the architectural company ZEDfactory Ltd, which worked with the Chinese company Himin to develop solar panels, thus helping to reduce costs. In cooperation with the Chinese bicycle company Shanghai Forever Co Ltd., the ZEDbike or e-bike was developed, which is powered by solar energy and travels at faster speeds than conventional bikes. It has the potential to replace cars for urban travel while reducing emissions. The British company Stramit specializing in the manufacturing of strawboard from wheat or rice by a process of heat and pressure, is helping China to protect its environment. Not only does its technology reduce the harmful emissions from burning straw in rural areas, but it also provides extra income for farmers (Asia Green Buildings, 2013).
In Asia, building energy efficiency standards can be either mandatory or voluntary. Countries like Singapore and Thailand have adopted mandatory regulations, while countries such as Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Philippines have mixed standards. While initial costs is of concern to building contractors, in the long term, building green is beneficial environmentally and financially. As an incentive, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) has launched a building design tool called EDGE (Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiency) which provides cost effective energy efficiency solutions that will help mitigate climate change and are developed specifically for emerging markets in Asia Pacific (Asia Green Buildings, 2016).
*CASE IN POINT*: In January 2008, the Abu Dhabi government unveiled a plan called the Masdar Initiative in the hopes of creating a zero-carbon, zero-waste, zero-car city from scratch at an estimated cost of $15 billion. It occupies six square kilometers and is home to 40,000 residents. Its buildings are only five stories high with solar paneled rooftops, while street-level "solar canopies" provide shade for pedestrians. The entire city is oriented north-east to south-west, to minimize the incoming heat during the day and to benefit from cooling winds at night. A 45 m high wind tower also produces a cooling effect. Currently, the city uses 13 driverless personal rapid transit pods (PRTs), which run on magnetic tracks using electric power for transport. Electric vehicles are made available for public use that can be recharged throughout the city. Built about 100 km from Masdar at an estimated cost pf US $600 million, is SHAMS1: a 2.5 km², 100 MW Concentrated Solar Power plant that supplies energy to the city. It displaces 175,000 tonnes of CO₂ annually. Masdar City is also supplied by a 0.2 km², 10 MW solar plant, which uses photovoltaic technology. There are no light switches in the city but there are motion sensors, which reduce waste. Although Masdar City has enabled the development of energy-saving buildings along with innovative technologies, there is still room for improvement. Unlike Masdar City that was built on an empty site, other cities must work around existing infrastructure to create green space and make room for energy-efficient buildings (Lee, 2016).
*Here is a YOUTUBE video that shows you how Masdar City has incorporated solar energy into their infrastructure. It is followed by another video on the way the city was developed that is 15 minutes long and is very educational. I recommend you watch both.
With the Kyoto Protocol linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), many nations have adopted its binding greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. A total of 192 countries have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol with the exception of Afghanistan, Sudan, and the U.S (Merchant, 2011). More recently, however, the Paris Climate Agreement of 2016 has provided a loose-fitting framework for individual countries to develop their own climate strategies all with the goal of further reducing greenhouse gas emissions. China and India, originally assumed to be against such a climate deal, are actually supporters (Simon-Lewis, 2017). For information on how India is being transformed by renewable energy take a look at the following website: www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/publications/2015/renewable-energys-transformation.pdf . Now, let us focus on China's rapport for renewable energy sources to provide an example of how different sectors contribute to the building of green cities.
In support of the Paris Climate Agreement a Chinese foreign ministry spokesperson stated the following: "The general trend of green, low-carbon and sustainable development advocated by the Paris Agreement coincides with China's policy of promoting ecological advancement. However the other countries may change, China will continue to pursue innovative, coordinated, green, open and shared development, bear in mind its domestic requirements for sustainable growth, step up concrete efforts to deal with climate change and faithfully implement the Paris Agreement" (Simon-Lewis, 2017). Research and development of eco-cities, smart cities and clean energy is currently booming in China, due to large market demand and government policy support. China plans on building 300 eco-cities, has committed itself to producing 20 percent of its primary energy from renewable resources by 2030, and is estimated to spend $365 billion on the effort (Gardiner, 2017). In 2005, China passed a Renewable Energy Law that offers a variety of financial incentives such as discounted lending and tax preferences, which has encouraged advances in the development of wind power and solar power. Challenges in implementation, however, arise from change in leadership, relocation of rural people, and land disputes (Sukhdev, Stone, Nuttal, 2010).
Many Western companies are developing new solutions in China's largest eco-city, Tianjin. For instance, the British company Green Biologics has developed biobutanol production technology, which turns agricultural waste products into biofuels and produces an important chemical used in the production of paint, adhesives, inks, and plastics. They signed a deal in 2011 with Laihe Rockley Biochemical Ltd, to help it produce biobutanol from cellulose feedstock. Besides Brazil, China is the only country with biobutanol plants, although it is now being commercialized to other markets around the world. An example of another company involved in the research and development environment of China, is the architectural company ZEDfactory Ltd, which worked with the Chinese company Himin to develop solar panels, thus helping to reduce costs. In cooperation with the Chinese bicycle company Shanghai Forever Co Ltd., the ZEDbike or e-bike was developed, which is powered by solar energy and travels at faster speeds than conventional bikes. It has the potential to replace cars for urban travel while reducing emissions. The British company Stramit specializing in the manufacturing of strawboard from wheat or rice by a process of heat and pressure, is helping China to protect its environment. Not only does its technology reduce the harmful emissions from burning straw in rural areas, but it also provides extra income for farmers (Asia Green Buildings, 2013).
In Asia, building energy efficiency standards can be either mandatory or voluntary. Countries like Singapore and Thailand have adopted mandatory regulations, while countries such as Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Philippines have mixed standards. While initial costs is of concern to building contractors, in the long term, building green is beneficial environmentally and financially. As an incentive, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) has launched a building design tool called EDGE (Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiency) which provides cost effective energy efficiency solutions that will help mitigate climate change and are developed specifically for emerging markets in Asia Pacific (Asia Green Buildings, 2016).
*CASE IN POINT*: In January 2008, the Abu Dhabi government unveiled a plan called the Masdar Initiative in the hopes of creating a zero-carbon, zero-waste, zero-car city from scratch at an estimated cost of $15 billion. It occupies six square kilometers and is home to 40,000 residents. Its buildings are only five stories high with solar paneled rooftops, while street-level "solar canopies" provide shade for pedestrians. The entire city is oriented north-east to south-west, to minimize the incoming heat during the day and to benefit from cooling winds at night. A 45 m high wind tower also produces a cooling effect. Currently, the city uses 13 driverless personal rapid transit pods (PRTs), which run on magnetic tracks using electric power for transport. Electric vehicles are made available for public use that can be recharged throughout the city. Built about 100 km from Masdar at an estimated cost pf US $600 million, is SHAMS1: a 2.5 km², 100 MW Concentrated Solar Power plant that supplies energy to the city. It displaces 175,000 tonnes of CO₂ annually. Masdar City is also supplied by a 0.2 km², 10 MW solar plant, which uses photovoltaic technology. There are no light switches in the city but there are motion sensors, which reduce waste. Although Masdar City has enabled the development of energy-saving buildings along with innovative technologies, there is still room for improvement. Unlike Masdar City that was built on an empty site, other cities must work around existing infrastructure to create green space and make room for energy-efficient buildings (Lee, 2016).
*Here is a YOUTUBE video that shows you how Masdar City has incorporated solar energy into their infrastructure. It is followed by another video on the way the city was developed that is 15 minutes long and is very educational. I recommend you watch both.
The following cities are also exemplars of what it means to be a green city or a work in progress: Malmo, Sweden; Curitiba, Brazil; Reykjavik, Iceland, and Portland, Oregon.
Malmo, Sweden is a great example of a green city. With a population of roughly 280,000 it is the third largest city in Sweden. Malmo planned on reducing its carbon emissions by 25 percent between 2008 and 2012 exceeding the 5% goal set by the Kyoto Protocol. The neighborhood of Western Harbour runs on 100% renewable energy from sun, wind, hydropower, and biofuels. Its buildings are designed to be energy efficient and are constructed with sustainable materials. 40% of commuters travel by cycling. Also, the area of Sege Park was being restored to power the neighborhood with photovoltaics, wind power, and biofuels. In Malmo, the district of Augustenborg has botanical roof gardens that reduce runoff while adding insulation and vegetation. They also have more than a dozen recycling houses that process about 70% of collected waste. Sweden's Envac Environmental Technology Co Ltd, uses large underground pneumatic tubes to distribute waste to a centralized processing facility, thereby elimimating odorous trash bins and waste transfer vehicles (Trimarchi & Clifton, 2015).
Curitiba, Brazil is also a good example of a green city. Its population has more than tripled since the 1960s. Within the city, contractors get tax incentives when their projects include green areas, which helps to add more green space to the landscape of the city. Property taxes can also be removed for landowners that maintain 70 to 100% native forest as part of their land. Curitiba is made up of almost 30 parks and urban forests and has built artificial lakes to solve the problem of ongoing floods. It has managed within 30 years to increase the green space average to 52 square meter per citizen as opposed to one square meter. 1.5 million trees have been planted along the city's highways since its green program began. The city created a program in 1991 to incentivize recycling by giving low-income families a way to earn food and bus tickets by gathering and recycling the city's reusable waste. This results in about 44 tons of food each month going to its citizens that need it most. To protect both population density and green areas, one of the key elements of urban planning was a choice for growth in a 'radial linear-branching pattern' as shown to the right (Barth, 2014).
Reykjavik, Iceland is the smallest green city with only about 115,000 people, while the entire country of Iceland has 300,000 people. Iceland plans on becoming a hydrogen economy by 2050 and to detach itself from dependence on fossil fuels. Reykjavik along with all of Iceland gets energy for heat, hot water, and electricity entirely from hydropower and geothermal resources. Some vehicles even run on hydrogen, including three city buses (Trimarchi & Clifton, 2015).
Portland, Oregon home to more than 500,000 people is one of the most progressive cities in the U.S. toward green living. They have been thinking "green" for over a century. Thirty years ago, they added more green space in their urban planning by demolishing a six-lane highway to develop a waterfront park. Today, the city has 74 miles of biking, hiking, and running trails, and has around 92,000 acres of green space. They have even enacted laws to protect 25 million acres of forest and farms. Portland is known to be the first city to enact a plan to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. The city has 50 buildings that meet or exceed U.S. Green Building Council standards for sustainability. By 2010, the city planned to supply 100 percent of its energy from renewable sources. More than a quarter of commuters bike to work and they even have solar-powered parking meters. Portland uses 33% renewable energy while the national average uses 13%. It is one of the first cities to ban plastic bags (Trimarchi & Clifton, 2015).
Areas for further research: Germany wants to ban combustion engines by 2030. To read more on this topic: futurism.com/combating-climate-change-germany-calls-for-a-ban-on-combustion-engines-by-2030/
Conclusion: There is a wealth of information available on how countries around the world are combating climate change and incorporating green energy sources, and efficient buildings into their infrastructure. Often times there is an interplay between international companies that offer incentives, the private sector, government policy, and environmental agencies that cooperate together in making change happen. International agreements also contribute to the landscape of proposed "green" cities. There is exciting research and development being done around the world to build sustainable cities that can at the same time ameliorate poverty.
References
Asia Green Buildings. (2013, August). China: the latest breeding ground for Eco-cities. Retrieved from http://www.asiagreenbuildings.com/6153/china-the-latest-breeding-ground-for-eu-companies-green-technology/
Asia Green Buildings. (2016, August). Government incentives and regulation as the main challenges for green building development in Asia. Retrieved from http://www.asiagreenbuildings.com/featured/2016/08/16/government-incentives-and-regulation-as-the-main-challenges-for-green-building-development-in-asia/
Barth, B. (2014, March). Curitiba: The Greenest City on Earth. Retrieved from https://theecologist.org/2014/mar/15/curitiba-greenest-city-earth
China.Org (2013, July). Testing fresh ground for clean tech development. Retrieved from http://www.eco-business.com/news/testing-fresh-ground-clean-tech-development/
Gardiner, B. (2017, May). Three reasons to believe in China's renewable energy boom. Retrieved from https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/05/china-renewables-energy-climate-change-pollution-environment/
Lee, S. (2016, September). Masdar City: The ultimate experiment in sustainable urban living. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/style/article/conversation-masdar-city-lee/index.html
Patarkalashvili, T.K. (2017, June). Urban forests and green spaces of Tbilisi and ecological problems of the city. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S151218871730060X
Merchant, B. (2011, November). The only nations that haven't signed 1997's global climate treaty are Afghanistan, Sudan & the U.S.A Retrieved from https://www.treehugger.com/climate-change/only-nations-havent-signed-1997s-global-climate-treaty-are-afghanistan-us.html
Simon-Lewis, A. (2017, November). What is the Paris climate agreement and who has signed it? Retrieved from http://www.wired.co.uk/article/what-is-paris-agreement-on-climate-change
Sukhdev, P., Stone, S., Nuttal, N. (2010). Green economy. Developing countries success stories. Retrieved from http://www.stakeholderforum.org/fileadmin/files/Green%20Economy%20Success%20Stories.pdf
Trimarchi, M., & Clifton, J. (2015). 10 Amazing Green Cities. Retrieved from https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/five-amazing-green-cities.htm
United Nations Environment Programme. (2011). Introduction. Setting the stage for a green economy transition. Retrieved from https://web.unep.org/greeneconomy/sites/unep.org.greeneconomy/files/publications/ger/ger_final_dec_2011/1.0-Introduction.pdf